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• Black vine weevil, Otiorhynchus sulcatus is a common insect pest of over 150 plant species that grown in the greenhouses and nurseries. Some of the plant species damaged by black vine weevils include Azalea, Cyclamen, Euonymus, Fuxia, Rosa, Rhododendron and Taxus. Grubs (Larvae) of these weevils generally girdle the main stem, and feed and damage roots leading to nutrient deficiencies. Adults feed on leaves and flowers by notching their edges thus reducing aesthetic value of plants.
• The entomopathogenic nematodes species including Heterorhabditis bacteriophora, H. megidis and Steinernema carpocapase, S. feltiae and S. glaseri have been found to be effective alternatives to chemical insecticides such as chlorpyrifos (Dursban) in controlling black vine weevils. Susceptibility of black vine weevil to nematodes is species and strain specific. The rate of application of the nematode species/strains that tested against black vine weevil varies (5,000- 60,000 infective juveniles/pot) among different studies but nematodes applied at the rate of 5000- 20,000 infective juveniles/pot can cause up to 100% grub mortality.  Nematodes can be easily applied in water suspension as spray applications to the surface of plant growing medium but if nematodes are injected at depths deeper than 5 cm i.e. near to grubs they can cause highest mortality of grubs (70-93%) than those nematodes applied to the surface. All the four larval stages (instars) and pupae of black vine weevil are susceptible to all entomopathogenic nematode species. However, Heterorhabdtis bacteriophora can cause higher mortality of first and second instars than S. carpocapase and S. glaseri. Also, all the three nematodes species are equally effective against third and fourth instars of black vine weevil.

How Entomopathogenic Nematodes Kill Black Vine Weevil

• When the infective juveniles are applied to the surface of plant growing medium or injected in the potting medium, they start searching for their hosts, in this case black vine weevil grubs and pupae. Once a grub/pupa has been located, the nematode infective juveniles penetrate into the grub or pupa body cavity via natural openings (mouth, anus and spiracles). Infective juveniles of Heterorhabditis also enter through the intersegmental members of the grub/pupa cuticle. Once in the body cavity, infective juveniles release symbiotic bacteria (Xenorhabdus spp. for Steinernematidae and Photorhabdus spp. for Heterorhabditidae) from their gut in the grub blood. Multiplying nematode-bacterium complex in the blood causes septicemia and kills the grub usually within 48 h after infection. Nematodes feed on multiplying bacteria, mature into adults, reproduce and then emerge as infective juveniles from the cadaver to seek new grubs or pupae in the potting medium/soil.

1. Steinernema abbasi- undescribed
2. S. aciari- undescribed
3. S. affine-Xenorhabdus bovienii
4. S. akhursti- undescribed
5. S. anatoliense- undescribed
6. S. apuliae- undescribed
7. S. arenarium- X. kozodoii
8. S. ashiuense- undescribed
9. S. asiaticum- undescribed
10. S. backanense- undescribed
11. S. beddingi- undescribed
12. S. bicornutum- X. budapestensis
13. S. carpocapsae- X. nematophila
14. S. caudatum- undescribed
15. S. ceratophorum- undescribed
16. S. cholashanense- undescribed
17. S. cubanum- X. poinarii
18. S. cumgarense- undescribed
19. S. diaprepesi- undescribed
20. S. eapokense- undescribed
21. S. feltiae- X. bovienii
22. S. glaseri- X. poinarii
23. S. guangdongense- undescribed
24. S. hebeiense- undescribed
25. S. hermaphroditum- undescribed
26. S. intermedium – X. bovienii
27. S. jollieti-undescribed
28. S. karii- undescribed
29. S. khoisanae- undescribed
30. S. kraussei- X. bovienii
31. S. kushidai- X. japonica
32. S. leizhouense- undescribed
33. S. litorale- undescribed
34. S. loci- undescribed
35. S. longicaudum- undescribed
36. S. monticolum- undescribed
37. S. neocurtillae- undescribed
38. S. oregonense- undescribed
39. S. pakistanense- undescribed
40. S. puertoricense- X. romanii
41. S. rarum- X. szentirmaii
42. S. riobrave- Xenorhabdus sp
43. S. ritteri- Xenorhabdus sp
44. S. robustispiculum- undescribed
45. S. sangi- undescribed
46. S. sasonense- undescribed
47. S. scapterisci- X. innexi
48. S. scarabaei- X. koppenhoeferi
49. S. serratum- X. ehlersii
50. S. siamkayai- X. stockiae
51. S. sichuanense- X. bovienii
52. S. silvaticum- undescribed
53. S. tami- Xenorhabdus sp
54. S. texanum- undescribed
55. S. thanhi- undescribed
56. S. thermophilum- X. indica
57. S. websteri- undescribed
58. S. weiseri- undescribed
59. S. yirgalemense- undescribed

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known species of symbiotic bacterial genus Xenorhabdus Thomas and Poinar 1979 associated with a nematode genus Steinernema.

Identification based on colony morphology and molecular techniques

1. Xenorhabdus beddingii (Akhurst 1986) Akhurst and Boemare 1993
2. X. bovienii (Akhurst 1983) Akhurst and Boemare 1993
3. X. budapestensis Lengyel, Lang, Fodor, Szállás, Schumann, Stackebrandt, 2005
4. X. cabanillasii Tailliez, Pagès, Ginibre & Boemare, 2006
5. X. doucetiae Tailliez, Pagès, Ginibre & Boemare, 2006
6. X. ehlersii Lengyel, Lang, Fodor, Szállás, Schumann, Stackebrandt, 2005
7. X. griffiniae Tailliez, Pagès, Ginibre & Boemare, 2006
8. X. hominickii Tailliez, Pagès, Ginibre & Boemare, 2006
9. X. indica Somvanshi, Lang, Ganguly, Swiderski, Saxena, & Stackebrandt 2006
10. X. innexi Lengyel, Lang, Fodor, Szállás, Schumann, Stackebrandt, 2005
11. X. japonica Nishimura et al. 1995
12. X. koppenhoeferi Tailliez, Pagès, Ginibre & Boemare, 2006
13. X. kozodoii Tailliez, Pagès, Ginibre & Boemare, 2006
14. X. mauleonii Tailliez, Pagès, Ginibre & Boemare, 2006
15. X. miraniensis Tailliez, Pagès, Ginibre & Boemare, 2006
16. X. nematophila (Poinar and Thomas 1965) Thomas and Poinar 1979
17. X. poinarii (Akhurst 1983) Akhurst and Boemare 1993
18. X. romanii Tailliez, Pagès, Ginibre & Boemare, 2006
19. X. stockiae Tailliez, Pagès, Ginibre & Boemare, 2006
20. X. szentirmaii Lengyel, Lang, Fodor, Szállás, Schumann, Stackebrandt, 2005

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Known species of Steinernema Travassos, 1927 with a biocontrol potential- Identification based on morphological and molecular techniques

1. Steinernema abbasi Elawad, Ahma & Reid, 1997
2. S. aciari Qiu, Yan, Zhou, Nguyen & Pang, 2004
3. S. affine (Bovien, 1937) Wouts, Mrácek, Gerdin & Bedding, 1982
4. S. akhursti Qiu, Hu, Zhou, Mei, Nguyen, & Pang, 2005
5. S. anatoliense Hazir, Stock & Keskin, 2003
6. S. apuliae Triggiani, Mracek & Reid, 2004
7. S. arenarium (Artyukhovsky, 1967) Wouts, Mrácek, Gerdin & Bedding, 1982
8. S. ashiuense Phan, Takemoto & Futai, 2006
9. S. asiaticum Shahina, Reid & Rowe, 2002
10. S. backanense Phan, Spiridonov, Subbotin & Moens, 2006
11. S. beddingi Qiu, Hu, Zhou, Pang & Nguyen, 2005
12. S. bicornutum Tallosi, Peters & Ehlers 1995
13. S. carpocapsae (Weiser, 1955) Wouts, Mrácek, Gerdin & Bedding, 1982
14. S. caudatum Xu, Wang & Li, 1991
15. S. ceratophorum Jian, Reid & Hunt 1997
16. S. cholashanense Nguyen, Puža & Mrácek, 2008
17. S. costaricense Uribe, Mora & Stock, 2007
18. S. cubanum Mrá¡cek, Hernandez & Boemare, 1994
19. S. cumgarense Phan, Spiridonov, Subbotin & Moens, 2006
20. S. diaprepesi Nguyen, & Duncan, 2002
21. S. eapokense Phan, Spiridonov, Subbotin & Moens, 2006
22. S. feltiae (Filipjev, 1934) Wouts, Mrácek, Gerdin & Bedding, 1982
23. S. glaseri (Steiner, 1929) Wouts, Mracek, Gerdin & Bedding, 1982
24. S. guangdongense Qiu, Fang, Zhou, Pang, & Nguyen, 2004
25. S. hebeiense Chen, Li, Yan, Spiridonov & Moens 2006
26. S. hermaphroditum Stock, Griffin, & Chaerani, 2004
27. S. intermedium (Poinar, 1985) Mamiya, 1988
28. S. jollieti Spiridonov, Krasomil-Osterfeld & Moens, 2004
29. S. karii Waturu, Hunt & Reid, 1997
30. S. khoisanae Nguyen, Malan, & Gozel, 2006
31. S. kraussei (Steiner, 1923) Travassos, 1927
32. S. kushidai Mamiya, 1988
33. S. leizhouense Nguyen, Qiu, Zhou, & Pang, 2006
34. S. litorale Yoshida, 2004
35. S. loci Phan, Nguyen & Moens, 2001
36. S. longicaudum Shen & Wang, 1992
37. S. monticolum Stock, Choo & Kaya, 1997
38. S. neocurtillae Nguyen & Smart, 1992
39. S. oregonense Liu & Berry, 1996
40. S. pakistanense Shahina, Anis, Reid, Rowe & Maqbool, 2001
41. S. puertoricense Roman & Figueroa, 1994
42. S. puntauvense Uribe, Mora & Stock, 2007
43. S. rarum (Doucet, 1986) Mamiya, 1988
44. S. riobrave Cabanillas, Poinar & Raulston, 1994
45. S. ritteri de Doucet & Doucet, 1992
46. S. robustispiculum Phan, Subbotin, Waeyenberge, & Moens, 2005
47. S. sangi Phan, Nguyen & Moens, 2001
48. S. sasonense Phan, Spiridonov, Subbotin & Moens, 2006
49. S. scapterisci Nguyen & Smart, 1992
50. S. scarabaei Stock & Koppenhöfer 2003
51. S. serratum Liu, 1992
52. S. siamkayai Stock, Somsook & Kaya, 1998
53. S. sichuanense Mrácek, Nguyen, Tailliez, Boemare & Chen, 2006
54. S. silvaticum Sturhan, Spiridonov & Mracek, 2005
55. S. tami Luc, Nguyen, Reid & Spiridonov, 2000
56. S. texanum Nguyen, Stuart, Andalo, Gozel, & Roger, 2007
57. S. thanhi Phan, Nguyen & Moens, 2001
58. S. thermophilum Ganguly & Singh, 2000
59. S. websteri Cutler & Stock, 2003
60. S. weiseri Mrácek, Sturhan & Reid, 2003
61. S. yirgalemense Nguyen, Tesfamariam, Gozel, Gaugler, & Adams, 2005

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